The Rich History of Black Pepper Since the 3rd Century

As the most traded spice in the world, black pepper is a staple in cuisines across the globe. Its distinctive spiciness comes from the chemical compound piperine, which produces a different kind of heat compared to capsaicin, the compound found in chili peppers. In the Western world, black pepper is a ubiquitous seasoning, often paired with salt and commonly found on dining tables in shakers or mills.

Black pepper, native to South and Southeast Asia, has been a key element of Indian cuisine since at least 2000 BCE, primarily sourced from India’s Malabar Coast in Kerala. The ancient port city of Muziris was famous for its spice exports, trading with the Roman Empire and other regions. Valued as a trade commodity, peppercorns were referred to as black gold and sometimes used as currency, influencing terms like peppercorn rent in Western legal systems to denote nominal payments.

Ancient times

• Ancient Egypt: Black peppercorns were found in the nostrils of Ramesses II as part of the mummification process shortly after his death in 1213 BCE. However, little is known about how pepper was used in ancient Egypt or how it made its way from the Malabar Coast of South Asia to the Nile.
• Ancient Greece (4th century BCE): By the fourth century BCE, both long and black pepper were known in Greece, though they were likely rare and expensive, accessible only to the wealthy.
• Roman Empire (1st century BCE – 5th century CE):By the early Roman Empire, particularly following Rome’s conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, direct maritime trade across the Arabian Sea to southern India’s Malabar Coast had become relatively routine. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea provides details of this trade across the Indian Ocean. Greek geographer Strabo notes that the Roman Empire sent a fleet of around 120 ships annually to India, taking advantage of the monsoon winds. On their return, the ships sailed up the Red Sea, with cargo then transported overland or via the Nile-Red Sea canal to Alexandria, and shipped on to Italy and Rome. This trade route would continue to dominate the European pepper trade for centuries.
• Indian Subcontinent (Malabar Coast):With direct voyages to the Malabar Coast, Malabar black pepper traveled a shorter route than long pepper, leading to lower prices. Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History (77 CE), recorded the prices in Rome: long pepper was 15 denarii per pound, white pepper 7 denarii, and black pepper 4 denarii. He also remarked that the Roman Empire lost 50 million sesterces annually to India, expressing surprise at the popularity of pepper despite its lack of sweetness or appeal beyond its pungency, a characteristic that led to its widespread importation. Pliny questioned who first thought to use it as food, and who was not satisfied with hunger alone to satisfy a greedy appetite.
• Chinese Trade (Southeast Asia):Black pepper was a well-known and widely used seasoning in the Roman Empire, though it remained costly. In the De re coquinaria, a cookbook from the third century CE, pepper appears in many recipes. Edward Gibbon, in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, noted that pepper was “a favorite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery.”

Postclassical Europe: The Role of Pepper in Trade and Society

Pepper was so valuable during the Middle Ages that it was used as collateral and even as currency. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, demanded 3,000 pounds of pepper as part of the ransom when he besieged Rome in the fifth century.

After the fall of Rome, similarly to other kind of peppers, the Persians and Arabs took over the middle stages of the spice trade. Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek geographer, recorded that pepper was still being exported from India in the 6th century. By the end of the Early Middle Ages, the spice trade was largely under Islamic control. The Italian city-states, particularly Venice and Genoa, dominated the Mediterranean spice trade.

A riddle by Saint Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne, offers insight into the use of pepper in England during the 7th century. In the riddle, pepper is described as a black, wrinkled substance with a “burning marrow,” used to season delicacies and meats.

During the Middle Ages, there was a common belief that pepper was used to mask the taste of rotten meat, but no evidence supports this claim. Pepper was a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy, who had access to fresh meat. It was also not widely used as a preservative, despite some antimicrobial properties of piperine; salt was a far more effective preservative.

Archaeological evidence of pepper consumption in late medieval Northern Europe comes from the wreck of the Danish-Norwegian flagship Gribshunden, which sank in 1495. Over 2,000 peppercorns, along with other spices such as clove, ginger, saffron, and almond, were recovered. These spices were likely intended for feasts at a political summit involving the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Councils of State.

The high price of pepper and the Venetian monopoly on its trade led the Portuguese to seek a direct sea route to India. Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498 by sailing around Africa, marking a key moment in the Age of Discovery. Portugal gained control of the spice trade, with the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas granting them exclusive rights to the region where black pepper originated.

However, after 150 years of monopoly, Portugal lost much of its control over the spice trade in the 17th century to the Dutch and the English, particularly during the Iberian Union (1580–1640). The Dutch began trading more pepper from the Malabar Coast between 1661 and 1663.

In conclusion, the rich history of black pepper, originating from the 3rd century AC, underscores its significance not only as a culinary staple but also as a vital player in the global trade networks that shaped the ancient world. This spice has transcended geographical boundaries, influencing cultures, economies, and cuisines over centuries. Understanding the journey of black pepper allows us to appreciate its enduring legacy and the profound impact it continues to have on our culinary experiences today. As we explore the depths of its history, we recognize that black pepper is more than just a seasoning; it is a symbol of the interconnectedness of human societies throughout history.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pepper#:~:text=Black%20pepper%20is%20native%20to%20South%20Asia%20and%20Southeast%20Asia,now%20the%20state%20of%20Kerala.

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